Tuesday, July 8, 2008

Islamic and Saivite mysticism



“He that knows himself knows his Lord” 
من عرف تقسه فقد عرف ربه))
~ Hadith ~
“He knows himself and becomes one with Siva” 
(தானே அறிந்து சிவத்துடன் தங்குமே)
 ~ Thirumandiram 2329 ~

CONTENTS
1.      Introduction to mysticism
2.      Mysticism in Qur’an and Thirumandiram
3.      Sufis in Islam and Siddhas in Saivism
4.      Spiritual Masters (Guru and Shaik) and Intercessors (شَافِعِينَ)
5.      Twilight language of Siddhas and Sufis
6.      The sanctity of the body: A microcosm of the macrocosm
7.      Look inward and draw near to God
8.      Man-God relationship
9.      Stages of spiritual ascent
10.  Interpreting the Ultimate Bliss
11.  Conclusions


1. Introduction to mysticism


Though Mysticism has been defined differently by different authors, we can appreciate that these definitions are expressions of the one and the same idea of the human soul’s desire to get that feeling of oneness, which in theistic terms is often regarded as merger with the Absolute. Among the various definition in vogue, mysticism is defined as the urge to reach out the Infinite;[i] as the science of union with the Absolute;[ii] as the art of establishing conscious relation with the Absolute;[iii] as the union of human personality with the divine,[iv] as the practice of contemplation;[v] as the universal yearning of the human spirit for personnel communion with God[vi] and so on. The main goal of a mystic therefore – depending on whether he is theistic, atheistic, nihilistic – is to seek that UNION with the Absolute, or establish that IDENTITY of the soul with the universal Principle (Thou art that), or in other words the self realizing that it is nothing but the Absolute, or realize that UNITY called Oneness.  We are therefore talking about three major types of final interpretations which are either interconnected or one leading to another: Union, Unity and Identity.
Evelyn Underhill described a mystic as a person who has attained the union with Reality in greater or lesser degree; or one who aims at and believes in such attainment.[vii] Both Islam and Saiva Siddhanta being theistic religions, this definition would hold true for the mystics of both faiths, namely Sufis and Siddhas respectively. Hazrat Inayat Khan opines that the only difference between the Yogi and Sufi is that the Yogi cares more for spirituality and the Sufi more for humanity.[viii]

Definition of Sufi: If we first find out who a Sufi is, then defining what Sufism may become [ix] (i) Purity (Sāfā) - indicating the requirement of a pure heart to be a Sufi; (ii) First in rank (Saff) – based of their elevation to first rank before God, (iii) Bench (Sūffah) – because their qualities resembled to those people of the bench who lived at the time of the Prophet, and (iv) Wool (Sūf) – which stems from the habit of these mystics to wear woolen garments. Apart from these four words, another equally important word of origin cited is the Greek word “Soph” meaning wisdom or knowledge[x] which Valiuddin has surprisingly left out. Interestingly, the word ‘Siddha’ also has a similar meaning, one has knowledge and perfect freedom.[xi]
easier. The Qur’an does not say a Sufi can be defined, for Sufism is a later development within Islam. Scholars differ in their opinion on the origin of the word Sufi. Mir Valiuddin, who discussed this at some length, mentions that the word has been attributed to have originated from either of these four terms:
            The development of mysticism in Islam has an interesting parallel with the scientific advancement in the Islamic world. Apart from being great poets (Rumi, Junaid) many Sufis were not only great philosophers (ibn al-Arabi), but were also great scientists (al-Ghazli, Ibn-Sina , Omar al-Khayyam) in Islamic history.

Definition of Siddha and Cittar: Siddhas have been described as quietists in religion and alchemist in science.[xii] To know who is a Siddha, we should know what Siddhi is. It is like saying, one should understand what Islam means (Submission) if we want to know who a Muslim (Submitter) is. A Siddha is one who has attained Siddhi. The term had been derived from the Sanskrit root sidh meaning "fulfillment" or "achievement," so the noun came to refer to one who had attained perfection.[xiii] Unlike Quran, Thirumandiram (Tmt) is explicit in describing who a Siddha is. Siddhas are those who live in Yoga Samadhi (Tmt: 1490), attain the Divine (Tmt: 671) and reach Siva (Tmt: 2347).
Apart from saints (e.g. Appar, Sambandar, Cuntarar, Manikkavasagar), philosophers (e.g. Meykandar, Arulnandi), there are also innumerable Siddhas (e.g. Agastya, Bhogar, Tirumular) many of whom would qualify to be called mystics. These “accomplished ones” are mystics who practiced austerities, yoga, alchemy, tantra.


2. Mysticism in Qur’an and Tirumandiram

The Qur'an we all know is attributed to Prophet Muhammad while Thirumandiram is attributed to Yogi Thirumoolar. Thirumandiram is the foundation upon which the later structure of Saiva Siddhanta philosophy was built,[i] while the Qur'an is undoubtedly the single most important scripture of Muslims.
Thirumoolar was not only a member of the group of Nayanmars (i.e. Chieftains of Saivism), but also a Siddha (mystics within Saivism). However, Muhammad – the founder of Islam – was a Prophet and statesman, and is not generally considered a mystic. All revealed religions of Semitic origin were not strictly mystical to begin with. This lead to the development of Sufism within Islam during the 9th century, and Kabbalah mysticism within Judaism during the 12th century. There is sufficient information in the mystical path of Islam (Sufism) to compare with the mystical experiences and teachings of Thirumoolar. Many of the Sufis interpreted their ecstatic condition, just like mystics in other faiths have done, as they had become unified with God or the True Reality.[ii] Like the Sufis, Thirumoolar was also not concerned with the secondhand knowledge of God, but with personal experience or realization of God.
The Qur'an does not ask its believers to seek for the spiritual experience of Muhammad but only follow his teachings (3:53). Muslims are expected to believe in the `Unity of God' (tawhīd: توحيد) and submit to His Will. The Qur’an says man returns to Him but that return is not depicted anywhere in the Qur’an as `Union with God', be it Here or Hereafter. That is why they are Believers (مُؤْمِنِين) in what has been told and not Seekers (நாடவர்) of what has been experienced by sages. Only in the later stage of Islamic history that the Sufis tried to not only imitate Muhammad but also attempted to seek the spiritual experience.[iii] The ideas of Union with God or ittihād (اتحاد) in Sufism are akin to Aikyavāda in Saivism (சேர்தல், கலத்தல், ஆகுதல்). The spirit of mysticism in these two religious traditions can be appreciated from these identical utterances of two eighth century mystics of Saivism and Islam. For it is said: “All mystics speak the same language, for they come from the same country” (Saint Martin).[iv]
Manickvasagar: “And they accept to stay even in hell, should the Lord will it that way” (Tiruvasagam)
Rabi’a al-Adawiyya: “Oh Lord, if I worship you out of fear of hell, burn me in hell” [v]

3. Sufis in Islam and Siddhas in Saivism

Like Sufis within Islam, Tamil Siddhas shares their origin within the Saiva Siddhanta faith. Though Sufi orders came into being in the 12th century A.D., its roots were sown in the eight century itself following the advent of Sufi saints like al-Hasan al-Basri and Rābi‘ah al-‘Adawiyah.[vi] Similarly, most of the Indian Siddha schools did not come into their own until the 12th century, though the southern variant, the Tamil Siddha School, had a fully defined system in the eighth century itself.[vii] Though mystics as such kept themselves away from theological argumentations and philosophical disputes, many of the mystics were also teachers, philosophers and especially in Islam many Sufis were also great theologians (e.g. Ibn al-Arabi, al-Ghazali). The Nayanmars or Chieftains occupy the position in Saiva Siddhanta what prophets are in Islam. Thirumoolar occupies a special position in Saiva Siddhanta as he is not only a devote Saivite Chieftain (Nayanmar) but also a Siddha. In Islam prophethood is attributed only to Muhammad and the rest are deemed mortals like other humans. Formally the Sufis, apart from their sainthood and scholarship, do not have any position in the creed of Islam.
Both Sufi and Siddha cults derive their source from the scriptures of the orthodox Islam and Saiva Siddhanta respectively. The Sufis believe that the words of the Qur’an have deeper meanings than it is usually understood by ordinary reader[viii] as a book emphasizing only on the externals and the transcendental nature of Allah. Unlike in Saiva Siddhanta, the vast amount of Sufi literature does not form a part of any Islamic canon which is occupied by the Qur’an and the Prophet’s sunnah explained in the different hadith literature. The Siddhas were however not constrained as much as the Sufis, since Thirumurai[1] by itself contained verses of attributed to Saivite mystics. Not only the Saiva canon, but Eastern scriptures in general contain considerable mystical elements than scriptures of Semitic origin like Torah, Bible and Qur’an.[ix]
The overemphasis on certain aspects of the scriptural teachings by the mystics, lead to divergence of views, and as a result, both Sufis and Siddhas were at odds with the orthodox believers of Islam and Saiva Siddhanta.[x] Renowned Tamil scholar Kamil Zvelebil said orthodox Hindus in Tamil Nadu have always had a deep-rooted prejudice against Siddhas.[xi] Aftab Shahryar in his book “Understanding Sufism” and Layne Little in his article on “Introduction to the Tamil Siddhas” had these to say about the persecution of Sufis and Siddhas respectively.

Aftab Shahryar[xii]
on the persecution of Sufis by the ulemas in Islam
Layne Little[xiii]
on the persecution of Siddhas by Siddantins
·         Ibn Taymiya attacked theosophical excesses of the Sufis and poured scorn on the doctrine of the Unity of Being (Wahdat al-Wujud). The fantastic sayings of Abu Yazid al-Bastami were rejected as the utterances of a spiritual drunkard.
·         Sir Muhammad Iqbal, the poet-philosopher of the East, argued that Sufism has no relation what so ever with simple Islamic beliefs and Arab religious spirit.
·         Ibn Jauzi (1200) declared war on all ecstatic utterances in his “Devil’s Delusion” and ibn Arabi’s writings became a mammoth target for the arrows of enraged orthodoxy.
·         At times the Siddhantins have even engaged in an organized effort to eliminate the Siddhar faction. For example, one movement, observed in the latter half of the nineteenth century, systematically sought out any copy of the writings of the heretical Siddha-poet Sivavakkiyar, and promptly destroyed them.
·         M. Srinivasa Iyangar in 1914 wrote that the Siddhas are "mostly plagiarists and impostors" and in addition, "being eaters of opium & dwellers in the land of dreams, their conceit knew no bounds".

4. Intercessors (شَافِعِينَ): Spiritual Masters (Guru and Shaik) in Saivism and Sufism

Mystic paths, irrespective of the religion tradition, invariably followed the practice of Master and Disciple lineage. They are called Guru and Seedan in Siava Siddhanta, and Sheik and Murid in Sufism. Veneration or worship of guru is not forbidden in Saiva Siddhanta, but in fact encouraged as a path to Self-realization. This is especially true in a mystical path like yoga which can be undertaken only through the guidance of a spiritual master.
Just like in Sikhism, where God is the Wahe-Guru, Siva in Saiva Siddhanta is a Guru Himself (பரனே குருவாம்: Tmt: 2066; நாதன் குரு: Tmt: 565). He is the Holy Master and Parama Guru (பரமகுரு: Tmt: 2835). Like all religious traditions within Hinduism, Saivism insists on the need of a Spiritual Master or Saint (குரு) for guidance to reach the goal. Holy gurus can lead disciples to Truth, says Thirumandiram (2049). Thirumandiram says a Guru is Siva Himself, he is God in human form (Tmt: 1581, 1592) and he has to be not only treated like God (Tmt: 1573) but worshipped as Lord Himself (Tmt: 1578). Disciples can attain Supreme State by adoring the feet of Guru in intense love (Tmt: 2059).
However, the Quran takes an opposite view and strongly condemns the use of intercessors to reach God. The intercessors have power over nothing (Qur: 39:43), worshipping or venerating intercessors will not yield any benefit (Qur: 10:18). Intercessors have no power and intelligence (Qur: 29:43). The following verse illustrates beyond doubt that worshipping or veneration of saints is strictly forbidden:
They have taken as lords beside Allah their rabbis and their monks and the Messiah son of Mary,
when they were bidden to worship only One God. There is no god save Him. (9:31)
In spite of this stricture, Islam could not prevent the development of Sufi orders, their blessings (baraka), their veneration and devotees using them as intercessors. Tombs of Sufi saints appeared all over the Islamic regions and annual gatherings (urs) organized on their death anniversaries. Interestingly, though bowing down to mortals like humans is considered a disgrace and ignorance in Islam, it is indeed perplexing to know why Allah Himself asked His Angles and Satan to bow down to Adam, the first man. When the Bible says man was created in the image of God (Gen 1:27), it would also mean that anything created in the image of God is adorable.

5. Twilight language of Siddhas and Sufis

The language of the mystics look very simple, but the meanings are often obscure as the author uses a wide variety of symbolism. All mystical writings and outpourings are in twilight languages and often metaphorical and it would be a grave mistake to interpret them literally. All the great poets of Persia, with few exceptions, speak in allegorical language[xiv] and often have two meanings, one inner and one outer.[xv] While commenting on the nature of Sufi literature, Hazrat Inayat Khan had this to say: “Most of the Sufi literature is written in such a way that to someone who does not know the inner, underlying meaning, it will be very surprising”.[xvi] Kamil Zvelebil, a renowned scholar, mentioned that unlike the bhakti hymns, which are “open” texts, the Siddha texts are “closed” and the meaning of these texts remains enigmatic.[xvii] While writing about the language of the Siddhas, T.N. Ganapathy, who wrote on the philosophy of Tamil Siddhas, said: “…. the language of the Siddhas is called a ‘merciless language’ since in it they conceive one thing and express another thing. If one takes the Siddha language as its face value, it will be like farmer who wanted to plough his fields trusting the mist formation.” Let us look at one poem each from the writings of a Sufi and Siddha.

You know, my Friends, how long since in my House
For a new Marriage I did make Carouse:
Divorced old barren Reason from my Bed,
And took the Daughter of the Vine to Spouse. (Rubaiyat, XL)[xviii]

Anyone reading the quatrines of Omar Khayyam would be forced to believe that the poet was a rampant materialist whose only mission in life was to make merry. In fact he was considered so by many scholars.[xix] Paramahansa Yogananda who produced a spiritual interpretation of the Khayyam’s poems, interprets the key words as below:[xx]

Friends as ‘Spiritual desires’ and House as “the body”,
New Marriage as “New realization” (of the union of soul with Spirit)
Carouse as “Divine inner celebration” (the joyous courting of Spirit in meditation)
Old barren reason as “Dry theological reason” (which is based on sense experience, unable to produce God-realization)
Bed as “The couch of life on which rest all process of consciousness”
Daughter of the vine “Spirit-revealing, bliss-producing intoxicating intuition”

We see similar verses of obscure nature meanings in Tirumandiram:

In the bewildered thoughts are the lines three;
In the sneering thoughts are the jackals four;
In the divided thoughts are the elephants five;
These are the foes of the contending mind. (Tmt: 2214)

T.N. Ganapathy explains this verse as follows: “The internal and external foes of the contending mind are: The three lions – lust, anger and ignorance: The four jackals – mind, intellect, will and ego; The five elephants – the senses of taste, sight, sound, touch and smell. The sādhaka should know how to control these animals inside the body by cultivating detachment towards them, by developing the yogic cessation of the fluctuations of the mind”.[xxi] 
And why do mystics write in ambiguous and obscure language? T.N. Ganapathy and Zvelebil point out that they do it on purpose. Sometimes great mystics use modified language to express their mystical experience in order to conform to the authority of the Church.[xxii] Writes Zvelebil, “Their obscure language is an important device by means of which they can at the same time address both a casual listener as well as an adept of great spiritual awareness who reads a deep mystic interpretation of their verses”.[xxiii] That is precisely the reason why it takes the caliber of people like Sri Sri Paramahamsa Yogananda to interpret Omar Khayyam’s Rubaiyat in the proper perspective.
The Quran also contains many verses that cannot be interpreted literally. In their attempt to interpret them literally, many Muslims have been forced to explain some of the contradictions that surface because of the literal interpretations. The Quran is categorical when it declares that only those revelations that are CLEAR form the substance of the Book, while others are ALLEGORICAL verses whose hidden meanings cannot be understood by those who are perverse.

“He it is Who hath revealed unto thee (Muhammad) the Scripture wherein are CLEAR revelations.
They are the substance of the Book and others (which are) ALLEGORICAL.
But those in whose hearts is doubt pursue, forsooth, that which is allegorical
Seeking (to cause) dissension by seeking to explain it.
None knoweth its explanation save Allah” (Q, 3:7)

6. The sanctity of the body: A microcosm of the macrocosm

            In Saiva Siddhanta, the human body is compared to a miniature universe. The positive attitude of the Siddhas toward the human body is quite opposite to the view in other Vedic sects which despise the human body as defective and evil.[xxiv] One of India's revered spiritual masters, Ramana Maharishi said that the entire universe is condensed in the body.[xxv] We see this view being held amongst the Sufis. Citing Ibn `Arabi' interpretation of mystical experiences, Majid Fakhry writes that the Perfect Man, after being created in God's image, is the paragon of creation and a replica of the whole universe.[xxvi] In other words man is a microcosm of the macrocosm. Yusus Emre (1240-1230), a great Sufi humanist of Turkish origin, had this to say about the body being a microcosm where all activities of the macrocosm can be witnessed.

We entered the house of realization, we witnessed the body.
The whirling skies, the many-layered earth,
The seventy thousand veils, we found in the body.
The night and the day, the planets,
the words inscribed on the Holy Tablets,
the hills that Moses climbed, we observed in the body.
Torah, Psalms, Gospel, Quran -
what these books have to say, we found in the body.
Everybody says these words of Yunus are true.
Truth is wherever you want it. We found it all within the body.
(Yunus Emre)[xxvii]
           
For Thirumoolar, the holy sanctum (கோயில்) of God is the heart in the fleshy body called the temple (ஆலயம்) (Tmt: 1823). This city of nine gates (Tmt: 470) is not to be despised but preserved for worship (Tmt: 725). The Lord has no other home other than the body-house of Jiva (Tmt: 2650). The idea of the body being considered an abode of God to be searched out is nothing new to Hindu philosophy for it has been mentioned even in the Upanishads. "There is this city of Brahman (the body), and in it the palace, the small lotus (of the heart), and in it that small ether. Now what exists within that small ether, that is to be sought for, that is to be understood" (Chandogya Upanisad, 8.1.1). Even in Christianity, a religion of Semitic origin, we see the body being referred as the temple of God because it holds the Spirit of God within. "Know ye not that ye are the temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwelleth in you?" (I Corinthians, 3:16) and “therefore glorify God in your body” (Cor 6:20).
            Since Sikhism evolved in an environment of conflicts and religious discourses between Muslim Fakirs and Hindu Yogis, it is not surprising to note that their scripture Guru Grant Sahib also considers the human body as the Temple of God.

This body is the Temple of the Lord, in which the jewel of spiritual wisdom is revealed.
The self-willed manmukhs do not know anything at all;
They do not believe that the Lord’s Temple is within. (Guru Grant Sahib, p. 1346)

Thus to realize the divine presence within, it is important to look inside. The Sufi disciplines of concentration, with their carefully prescribed techniques of breathing and posture, helped people to experience a sense of transcendent presence within.[xxviii] The entire system of Sufism centres around two questions[xxix]: (i). How can man gain the experience of God's inward presence and (ii) What is God's relation to the individuals and to the universe? So also the mystical paths on other religious like Saivism. 

7. Look inward and draw near to God

Essences are mirrors wherein God reflects Himself (Qaul al-Jāmi)[i]
He within you is, even unto reflection in the mirror (Tmt: 603)

In all theistic religions, God is both transcendent and immanent. Only the degree of transcendence and immanence differs between religions. The word Kadavul (கடவுள்) in Tamil is unique as it takes into account of both the transcendental and immanent nature of the Reality. Etymologically it is a conglomeration of two words namely “kada” (கட) which means “away” and “ul” (உள்) meaning “inside”. He is outward and inward (الظَّاهِرُ وَالْبَاطِنُ) says the Qur’an (57:3) and so too Thirumandiram (உள்ளன், புறத்துள்ளன், Tmt: 1532). Unlike the Qur’an, however, Thirumandiram repeatedly emphasizes this twin nature of God (Tmt: 2350, 3043) and lays considerable importance in self realization or realizing Him within.
Just as Jesus said: "Behold, the kingdom of God is within you" (Luke 17:21), the characteristic of Hindu belief is its inward search for divine reality.[ii] In Islam, the inward search for Reality was highlighted and put into practice well after the death of the prophet, by saints who came to be called as Sufis later. Mystics, irrespective of the religious background, mock at ordinary mortals who wander in search of God without realizing His presence within. Both Sufis and Siddhas have the same thing to say:

Know well thy relationship with God! He is nearer to us than our own selves,
Through ignorance we but wander from door to door in search of Him.[iii]

Continuous as thread within lotus stalk is Param within;
Yet they seek Him not there, but wander about everywhere. (Tmt: 2562)

Most scriptures proclaim man’s return to his heavenly source of origin, usually after his death. However, in the inward looking mysticism, the objective is to see the Reality now and here. That is why Indian spiritual tradition differentiates two types of moksha or release: (i) Ante-mortem Jeevan Mukti and (ii) Post-mortem Videha Mukti. Thirumandiram declares that one can bring down the transcendent God into this world of immanence in your very temple called the heart (Tmt: 1748). Only fools search with blazing torch while within them is the hand-lamp (Tmt: 749). Thirumandiram says “And may you meet the Lord, now and here below” (இன்று கண்டு இங்கே இருக்கலும் ஆமே).

Step by step, practice mind’s withdrawal and look inward;
One by one many the good  you see within;
And may you then meet the Lord, now and here below,
Whom the ancient Veda still searches everywhere. (Tmt: 578)

Either the Lord descends by bestowing His grace or the mystic ascends by looking inward. In both ways, be it ascent or descent, it requires the effort from the subject. The Lord will grant His grace and draw near when you adore Him (Tmt: 1526). Therefore the devotee has to adore Him to receive grace. It seems ‘moving closer to God’ is just a phase along the mystic’s journey towards God. Not surprisingly, all mystical paths – irrespective of their religious background – list this phase as an important one in a devotee’s approach to God.
Richard of St. Victor presents the ascent to union with the Absolute in four stages of “Steep Stairway of Love”: (i) Thirst for the Beloved, (ii) See the Beloved, (iii) Union in wedlock and (iv) Return or Merge.[iv] Sufis Hadrat Ali and Hadrat Abd al-Quādi Jilani described Sufism as an acronym of four letters TSWF of the word Tasawwuf (تصوف).[v] Each letter supposed to represent a secret stage or quality of a Sufi, (i) the first letter `T’ standing for Tawbah, repentance, (ii) the second stage is the stage of peace or joy Safa, (iii) the third letter stands for the state of sanctity of the lovers or friends of Allah Wilaya and (iv) the fourth letter stands for fanā’, annihilation of the self. Thirumandiram also describes about four successive stages to Finite Beatitude namely Saloka, Samipa, Sarupa and Sayujya (Tmt: 1507)

Four stages of ascent and union, enumerated by Christian, Muslim and Saivite mystics
Richard of St. Victor
Abd Al Qadi Jilani
Thirumoolar
(i) Thirst for the Beloved
Tawbah (توبه), Repentance
Saloka (Living in the World of God)
(ii) See the Beloved
Safa, Purity, Peace or joy
Samipa (Being Near to God)
(iii) Union in wedlock
Walee (ولي), Friend of Allah
Sarupa (Getting the form of God)
(iv) Return or Merge
Fanā’ (فناء), annihilation of the self.
Sayujya (Being one with God)

8. Man-God relationship

Fundamentally, there are three parts in mysticism: One is the mārgā or the Method employed by the mystic; the second is the spiritual Ascent and third the ultimate Bliss. As far as the method is concerned, a mystic in love of God may comprehend God as the Father (satputra mārgā), as the Master (dasa mārgā), as the Friend (saha mārgā), as Knowledge (san mārgā) or as Lover (madhura bhava). So the path or method chosen is influenced by the religious background of the mystic. A Christian would see God as the Father in the heaven and a Muslim mystic would perceive himself as a slave under his Master. In spite of this general trend, nothing could prevent mystics in these religious traditions to choose the paths of Friendship, Knowledge and Love. Barring a few verses here and there (e.g. 56:11, 3:31), the Qur’an invariably advocates a Master-Servant relationship between God and man (2:23, 6:18, 7:194, 8:51, 15:49, 25;1, 37:81, 40:31, 43:68, 76:6). Unlike in Qur’an, the other relationships are also stressed in the Saivite scripture Thirumurai. A critical study of Saiva Siddhanta will reveal that all these mārgās are within its fold.[vi] This is not the feature of Saiva Siddhanta alone but Hinduims at large.
Man-God relationship in Saivism is fundamentally a reflection of relation between Master and Slave (அந்தன், அடிமை).[vii] This is more so in Islam, which by itself means Submission or Surrender – where believers including many mystics consider themselves as obedient slaves (عَبْد) of Allah.  Allah is gracious unto His slaves (42:19) says the Qur’an. We see the Qur’an (3:19) mentioning emphatically that the Way with Allah is “Surrender or Submission” (إِنَّ الدِّينَ عِندَ اللّهِ الإِسْلاَمُ).
The Sufis believe that the Qur’an mentions them by giving them a special category called Muqarrabun (مُقَرَّبُونَ) which mean ‘those who are nearest to Allah’.[viii] We see a reference in the Qur’an where humans on the Day of Judgement are divided into three classes (56-7-11): (i) Companions of the Right hand, (ii) Companions of the Left hand and (iii) Those who are nearest to God (Muqarrabun: مُقَرَّبُونَ). The idea of “nearing to God” is found in the Saiva Siddhanta text Thirumandiram as well:

Move close to Lord, He leaves you not;
Move close to world, He leaves you alone
…… declares Thirumoolar (Tmt: 2811).

A comparable verse from the Qur’an also emphasizes the same:
Whoso desireth the harvest of the Hereafter,
We give him increase in its harvest.
And Whoso desireth the harvest of the world,
We give him thereof, and he hath no portion in the Hereafter (Qur’an 42:20).

The message is very clear in these verses. Those who are this worldly have no reward in the hereafter. Sufis hold that “Muqarrabun” is a not just another subcategory within the class of ‘Companions of the right hand’ - as it is generally interpreted by some scholars[ix] - for otherwise Allah wouldn’t have placed Muqarrabun in a separate class.
How to draw closer to Him? The Qur’an says: “prostrate thyself, and draw near (unto Allah)” (Qur: 96:16). Thirumandiram also makes a similar remark. “None but they of hard penance may near Him” (Tmt: 1623). Thirumandiram also says that the Lord will grant His grace and draw near when you adore Him (Tmt: 1526). Therefore it is by prostrating, adoring and hard penance that man can move closer to Him.
Madhura bhava, the mysticism of love, is the deep sense of love and devotion that flows from the hearts of the mystics towards God. Also called ‘bridal mysticism’, it is also one of the different types of methods (“mārgā”) recognized. In this case, there is no distinction between man and woman and everyone except God are all women and God is the only male ‘Purushöttama’.[x] Like most mystics who are God intoxicated, Thirumoolar is well known for his utterance that ‘Love is God’ (அன்பே சிவம்). In madhura bhava there is room for fear of God, but a sense of fascination, affection and longing by the beloved for union with her Lover. In Islam it was Rābi‘ah al-‘Adawiyah who introduced for the first time the concept of divine love as a pivotal point in the religious life of the devotee.[xi]
Jalal ad-Din Rumi says in his mystic epic Mathnavi: ‘The relgion of Love’s different from all other religions;
For lovers, God is their religion and their faith’.[xii] Al-Hallāj, a Sufi born in Persia, also described the 'essence of union' (`ayn al-jam') in which the mystic and the divine object of his search, become one.[xiii] Mahmud Shabistari (1250-1320), one of the most celebrated Sufi mystic of Persia, interprets the mystic union of the Self with the Divine to suggest the unity of all religions:

“I” and “You” are the veil between heaven and earth;
Lift this veil and you will see how all sects and religions are one.
Lift this veil and you will ask – When “I” and “You” do not exist.
(Mahmud Shabistari)[xiv]

We see an ecstatic Thirumoolar exclaiming in very similar words!

I sought Him in terms of` ‘I’ and ‘You’
But He that knows not ‘I’ from ‘You’
Taught me the truth, ‘I’ indeed is ‘You’
And now I talk not of ‘I’ and ‘You’. (Tmt: 1441)

Such an expression of oneness of "I" with "You" is not uncommon to see in Hindu texts. More often than not, the love is often expressed as between lovers. This is how Radha says to Krishna, describing the great moment of fulfillment.

At the blessed moment of our union
there was no consciousness
that I was your lover and you were my beloved,
Because the mind having ceased to function,
the distinction between `I' and `You' vanished.[xv]

Of the 12 Saiva Tirumurais, only the 10th and 12th namely Thirumandiram and Periyapuranam that there are no songs composed in the madhura bhava style.[xvi] This so called bridal mysticism, where the devotee stands before God as a bride and God as the beloved, is a part of mystical tradition in Sufism and Siddhanta. Persian exponent al-Khayyam (1050-1132), the author of the famous quatrains called ‘Ruba'iyyat’ expresses the same idea in the following words.

There was the door to which I found no key;
There was the veil through which I could not see;
Some little talk awhile of me and Thee
There was, and then no more of Thee and me!
(Omar al-Khayyam) [i]
9. Stages of spiritual ascent

The second is the process or stages of spiritual ascent which described differently in different traditions. There are different stages of human consciousness by which the mystic ascends to God by descending into his own mind.[ii] Mystical experience of God is also said to be a subjective experience that involves an interior journey, not a perception of an objective fact outside the self.[iii] Sometimes the mystics refer the stages of their upward spiritual journey in symbolic places or landmarks. These landmarks are described differently by different mystical traditions. In Jewish mysticism, these imagery stages of ‘heavens’ are called palaces `heikhalot' and the task of the mystic is to surpass these seven ‘heavens’ until he is taken to the throne of God.[iv] Dante expressed the stages of ascent in cosmic form of ten heavens.[v] Prophet Muhammad also is said to have had a vision of being taken to the highest level of divine presence through seven heavens.[vi] Thirumandiram says “Transcending universes seven and the beyond, is the Great Light” (Tmt: 2388).
Having ascended the Seven Steps high,
You shall sure reach the Home. (Tmt: 2905)

In all religious traditions, mystics ascend through a spiritual journey to God's throne or presence in the highest heavens.[vii] This journey symbolizes the integration of the mystic's whole being with the Divine.[viii] Thirumoolar refers to this ascent to climbing a mystic Tree (கொம்பேறி) or Mountain (அருவரையேறி) (Tmt: 625, 626) just as Plato mentions on various ladders of ascent.[ix]  The idea of depicting the soul’s ascent as a ladder is not unique to Semitic tradition also. Thirumandiram also that the Soul ascends to Siva as if climbing up a ladder (Tmt: 1424). Prophet Muhammad had the experience of being taken up the heavens to the divine presence by Angel Gabriel during the famous night journey or Miraj (literally = "ascent"). The Qur'an mentions the first part of this event Mirāj, the night journey, in Sura 17:

Glorified be He Who carried His servant by night
From the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque
(مِّنَ الْمَسْجِدِ الْحَرَامِ إِلَى الْمَسْجِدِ الأَقْصَى)
(Qur: 17:1)

Yousuf Ali writes in his introduction to Sura 17:[x]
”The prophet was transported from the Sacred Mosque (of Mecca) to the Farthest Mosque (of Jerusalem) in a night and shown some of the Signs of Allah. The holy prophet was first transported to the seat of the earlier revelations in Jerusalem, and then taken through the seven heavens even to the Sublime Throne”
The Miraj (ascension), the journey to the divine presence, is the prototype of the spiritual journey of the Sufis.[xi] There are at least five figures in the Bible who are reported to have ascended to heaven: Enoch (Gen 5:24), Elijah (2 Kings 2:11-12), Jesus (Acts 1:9), Paul (2 Cor 12:2-4) and John (Rev 4:1). Muhammad's ascension was possible on buraq, an animal with wings, Ezekiel's mysterious vision was made possible on a heavenly chariot merkava (Bible, Ezekiel, 1:1), while tradition of Tamils record the ascent of Saivite Nayanar Cuntarar on a white elephant.[xii] Similar imageries of ascent through outer space have been reported by many mystics.
Irrespective of the mystical tradition, the ascent is classified into three broad stages namely purgation, illumination and union.[xiii] Dante in his Divine Comedy represented them as Inferno, Purgatorio and Paradiso. However, this journey has been traditionally symbolized by a passage through seven interior stations, expressed as heavens, mansions, stations, valleys, palaces or places.  Some mystics imagined it as a perilous journey through the seven heavens,[xiv] while others like the Sufi poet Farid Attar and Bahāi founder Bahā’ullah depicted the journey in the form of seven valleys. The ninth century Sufi Abu al-Hasan Nuri in his ‘Stations of the Heart’ (maqāmat al-qualb) expressed the journey in the form of seven castles (castles of corundum, silver, iron, brass etc.).[xv] Yogis who practice Kundalini yoga consider it as “stations of the spinal column” and call them charkas or circles (from muladhara to sahasrara), and some of the Tamil Saivite mystics like Cheramān Perumāl Nayanār and Nampiyandār Nambi compared the progress of the soul to the seven stages a girl goes through in her life (பேதை, பெதும்பை, மங்கை, மடந்தை, அரிவை, தெரிவை, பேரிளம்பெண்).[xvi] In the Tamil Siddha tradition the stations are sometimes identified with important places in Tamil Nadu (Thiruvarur, Kasi, Chidambaram etc.).[xvii] St. Teresa of the 16th century described the soul’s progress as seven mansions of the soul in her work “The Interior Castle”.[xviii] Jews called their imagery stages of heavens as palaces or `heikhalot'. Irrespective of these variations in their symbolic expressions, the description of these stages shows a surprising similarity (see table below).

Seven stages of spiritual ascent in Sufi, Christian and Hindu mysticism

Stages
States (Haalat) in Sufism
Interior Castle
St. Teresa
Kundalini stages in Yoga
General[xix]
Farid al-Din Attar[xx]

Stages of ……
Valleys of ….
Mansion of ….
Chakras of …..
1
Service (Ubudiyat) عبودية
Quest
Devotion
 Muladhara (Coccyx)
2
Love (Ishq)عشق
Love
Purification
 Svadhistana (Sacral)
3
Renunciation (Zuhd)  زهد
Knowledge
Sincerity
 Manipura (Navel)
4
Knowledge (Ma'rifat) معرفة
Detachment
Transformation
 Anahata (Cardiac)
5
Ecstasy (Wajd)وجد
Unity
Holiness
 Visshuddha (Thoracic)
6
Truth (Haqiqat) حقيقة
Amazement
Sanctification
 Ajna (Pituitary)
7
Union (Wasl) وصل
Annihilation of Self
Mystical union
 Sahasrara (Crown)

10. Interpreting the Ultimate Bliss

The third and the last but perhaps the most important is the interpretation of the experience of Ultimate Bliss. The interpretation of ‘mystical ascensions’ of mystics is culturally conditioned to the beliefs of their religious tradition.[xxi] An advaitist would interpret it as identification of Atman (human soul) with Brahman (the Universal Reality), a Christian would call it a vision of the Spirit reaching the Kingdom of God, a Buddhist would interpret it as reaching of Bodhisatva state or the attainment of state of nirvana, a Saivite yogi would call it becoming one with Siva, a Muslim sufi would interpret it as the final state of self annihilation fanā’ (or as Unity of Being – Wahdat al-Wujud), and a Jewish Kabbalist would interpret his experience as reaching the throne of God.
Interestingly the peak or the highest stage of spiritual marriage is compared to various things in different religious traditions. In Thirumandiram, Moolar compares the final stage of sahasrara in Kundalini yoga to Mount Meru, the mythical sacred mountain of the Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, which is often considered to be the Mount Kailash in the Himalayas of Mount Tibet (Tmt: 1984). The lowest stage of muladhara is compared to the Earth (Tmt: 1982, 1983). In Jewish and Islamic mysticism, the highest stage is the Throne of God. The Qur’an says that God took Prophet Muhammad by night (siraj) from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque (مِّنَ الْمَسْجِدِ الْحَرَامِ إِلَى الْمَسْجِدِ الأَقْصَى) (Qur: 17:1). Does the Sacred Mosque point to the lower stage and the Farthest Mosque the highest summit? Though commentators regard that Muhammad was lifted (perhaps only spiritually) up through the sevens heavens and even to the Sublime Throne of God, the Qur’an does not contain verses to substantiate this event of vertical ascent (miraj). It is perhaps well possible that he spiritually ascended to the ‘heavens’ but the symbolic stations of “departure and summit” could well be the Sacred Mosque (الْمَسْجِدِ الْحَرَامِ) in Mecca and the Farthest Mosque (الْمَسْجِدِ الأَقْصَى) in Jerusalem.
            A Sufi pursues his habit of self-denial and contemplation until his death, which is looked upon as fanā’ (فناء) which is interpreted as extinction or total absorption into the Deity.[xxii] Therefore the stage fanā’ (فناء) corresponds to the stage of Mukti of the Indian system. What is fanā’? fanā’ is the final passage that leads to the summit of Stages.[xxiii] fanā’ is a sort of ‘mental, yet real death’[xxiv] or ‘dying alive’[xxv] or what they call in Indian philosophy ‘Jivan Mukti’ (Antemortem 'salvation’) where Liberation is achieved while still in embodied existence, as opposed to ‘Videha Mukti’ (Postmortem 'salvation’) where Liberation is achieved after the dissolution of the body.[xxvi]
The Sufi interpretation fanā’ has often been confusingly compared with the Buddhist nirvana. Nirvana is described as a state when the ego disappears and the human soul and consciousness are extinguished. It also means blowing out or quenching of a flame[xxvii] or ‘blowing out’ or ‘extinguishing’ of desires. However, fanā’ is with God and is therefore theistic.[xxviii] If fanā’ is the final stage if extinction that leads to the summit of total absorption into the Deity, it could well be equated with Samadhi. Majid Fakhry considered this notion of self-annihilation or extinction as a reflection of nihilistic Hindu influence before Sufism became pantheistic or ‘unitary’ mysticism.[xxix]
How is that experience of conjugation with the Divine? Mystics describe that in allegories. St. Teresa compared that spiritual marriage to water falling from the sky into a river or a tiny stream falling into the sea, where the waters are united and it would not longer be possible to separate them.[xxx] While Thirumoolar compares it with the mixing of salt in water, all-Al-Hallāj as wine mixing with pure water. 

Siddha verse
Sufi verse
As salt in water, in Lord I mixed,
Transcending Param and Paraparam states, (2945)
Even as bubble returns into water,
Even as flame of camphor leaves traces none,
So is it when Jiva into Param unites. (Tmt: 2587)
Your spirit is mingling with my spirit
Just as wine is mixing with pure water
And when something touches You, it touches me
Now You are me in everything (al-Hallāj)[i]

[i] Massignon, L. 1982. The Passion of al-Hallāj. (Translation). H. Mason, New Jersey. p. 41-42

Though the spiritual experience of all mystics appear to have been the same, their interpretation and the end result of that experience have invariably been conditioned by their cultural tradition they lived in. Mysticism is part and parcel of Hinduism and all Hindu texts especially shrutis contain substantial mystical elements. On the contrary, Semitic mystics were constrained to work within the framework of their belief in a transcendent God who is beyond reach and in Arnold Toynbee’s words “a divinity withdrawn from the universe”.[xxxii] Jewish mystics, for instance, were always reluctant to claim union with God[xxxiii] and so also later mystics like al-Ghazali and Ibn `Arabi who stopped short of the claim of the union with God.[xxxiv] In spite of this general trend, many Muslim Sufis did not hesitate to interpret their religious experience as union with God.[xxxv]
History records that many of the mystics, in their state of absolute unity with the Absolute, have often used paradoxical and unorthodox language to express their mystical experience. When the Subject becomes one with the Object, whatever spoken by Subject could be considered as emanating from the Object. Perhaps the most daring of all Sufis was Al-Hallāj dared to declare that his direct awareness of God was for him a clearer proof than both revelation and reason.[xxxvi] He proclaimed “I am the Truth” (an al-Haq) which in Sufi terminology is considered as a statement of great humility because it affirms the truth.[xxxvii] Even here al-Hallāj actually stopped short of saying “I am God” which in similar terms is equivalent saying “I am That” (I am Brahman) as in the monistic mysticism of Sankara’s advaita emphasized in Upanishads. Thirumoolar says, having realized the Knowledge that knows all, you can very well declare that “I am the God” (இறை எனலாமெ: (Tmt: 2596). The upanishadic declaration “Thou art That” does not actually mean union with Brahman, but merely one identifying himself with That.[xxxviii] The Hindu mystic never shrank from establishing complete identity between the spark and God Himself.[xxxix] In Saiva Siddhanta texts, the ultimate Bliss is interpreted as Union with Siva. The single most message repeated again and again in Thirumandiram is Mukti is the Union of man with Siva.

The True Goal is to merge in one with Siva (Tmt: 1546);
Those who have tasted the Siva Bliss, shall be one with Siva (Tmt: 1644); 
He/she becomes one with Siva when Jiva attains Self-Knowledge (Tmt: 2331, 2380);
Verily Mukti is to be one with Siva (Tmt: 2475).

        Thirumandiram uses different terms for the union: `Union' (சேர்தல்: 2710, 862), `Realize in Union' சேர்ந்து உணரல் (1062), `Merge' கலத்தல் (2943), `Merge in Truth' பொருள் கலத்தல் (1037) and `Becoming' ஆகுதல் (630). By seeking inwardly through contemplation and yogic practices, self-realized ones actually becomes Siva, says Thirumandiram. Here we see a daring verse from Tirumandiram:

எல்லாம் அறிந்த அறிவினை நான் என்னில்,
எல்லாம் அறிந்த இறை எனலாமெ.
When you can say, “I am the Knowledge that knows all”,
Then can you well say, “I am the God that knows all” (Tmt: 2596)

Even here, what is meant is the “Jiva becoming Siva” and not the ‘individual’ as it is generally presumed.

And in the end attains Jnana
In Sivohamic ‘I’ and ‘You’ union
Jiva shall himself Siva become. (Tmt: 1469)

Imam al-Ghazali, one of the most famous Sufis, said “God is everywhere and in every thing”.[xl] This doctrine of wahdat al-wujud (وحدة الوجودثة) came into vogue as an alternative to the then prevailing interpretation of Union ittihād (اتحاد) which received the opposition of the orthodox Muslims.[xli] This form of pantheistic mysticism was also more Indian in character and expression.[xlii] It is pertinent to quote the Tamil proverb here, which says: “God is there in the pillar, as well as in the splinter” (அவர் தூணிலும் இருப்பார், துறும்பிலும் இருப்பார்). The Sufi doctrines are undoubtedly pantheistic, with the same union of man with God, the same emanation of all things from God, and the same final absorption of all things into the Divine Essence.[xliii] That is why Mysticism is also defined as the experience of the All in the One and the One in the All.[xliv] A Sufi poet conveys this pantheistic idea in this wonderful piece of couplet:

Thy face is visible through this world; who says Thou art hidden?
If Thou are hidden, how there comes in the world?[xlv]

            Both Sufism and Saivism emphasize that God dwells in all things.[xlvi] We also see pantheistic view of the universe depicted in Thirumandiram, with Siva immanent. Himself the scorching Fire, Sun, Moon, Mountains, oceans, and the mother that sends down the rains (Tmt: 10), Himself the seven worlds (Tmt: 87), Himself the atom, the cosmos, light, invisible air, migrating into mortal bodies, and immanent in all (Tmt: 649). In the Qur'an, however, the sun, moon, earth, heavens and mountains are described as God's creations and they speak of His glory. They all submit to His will. Allah has submitted the sun and the moon (to His law) (Qur: 13:2), they including the stars are submissive by His command (Qur: 7:54). Well, just like the way believers themselves are expected to surrender to His will. Therefore this pantheistic view of the universe is definitely a later development in Islam.
This idea of expressing that union as ‘Oneness’ or ‘Unity in being’ is different from ‘Unity of God’ (tawhid) to which al-Ghazali subscribed. Exoteric (Theological) tawhid is different from esoteric tawhid. The former poses God as a being while the latter mean ‘make-one’, cause to become one, or UNIFY.[xlvii]

11. Conclusion

We can safely conclude that "Self Surrender" (to the Transcendental Reality) is Islam, while "Self Realization" (of the Reality within) is Saiva Siddhanta. The inward emphases of these Vedic religions did not result in a lack of attention to outward forms,[xlviii] nor did Islam remain a religion of outwardness. For it is an established fact that the development of the inward looking Sufism within Islam was a result of the predominant outwardness in Islam[xlix] (More reference). Islam without its Sufism is a legal code, a theory of state, and moral discipline providing Divine guidance for those souls who have not attained spiritual maturity.[l] Therefore it is only with Sufism, the inward seeking path of Islam, that Saiva Siddhanta has many similarities.
 © N.V.K. Ashraf
First uploaded in July, 2008

[i] FitzGerald, E. 2000. Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. Rupa and Co. Quatrain 32. p. 73.
[ii] Armstrong, K. 1993. In: The God of the Mystics. A History of God. Mandarin. P 242-295
[iii] Armstrong, K. 1993. In: The God of the Mystics. A History of God. Mandarin. P 242-295
[v] Underhill, E. 1999. Mysticism. Oneworld. http://www.wolfram.demon.co.uk/rp_dante_heaven.html
[vi] Yousuf Ali, A. 1965. The Holy Qur'an: Text, translation and commentary. Third edition. Khalil Al-Rawaf, Beirut. Two volumes. P 693
[vii] Armstrong, K. 1993. In: The God of the Mystics. A History of God. Mandarin. P 242-295
[viii] Koovackal, G. 1993. Sufi spirituality. In: Islamic Spirituality. Editor: Augustine Thottakara. Dharmaram Publications, Bangalore. pp 73-90
[ix] Plato’s “Ladder of Love” – The Ascent to Beauty Itself (Symposium) (http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/~yount/text/plato-ladder.html)
[x] Yousuf Ali, A. 1965. The Holy Qur'an: Text, translation and commentary. Third edition. Khalil Al-Rawaf, Beirut. Two volumes. P 693
[xi] Koovackal, G. 1993. Sufi spirituality. In: Islamic Spirituality. Editor: Augustine Thottakara. Dharmaram Publications, Bangalore. pp 73-90
[xii] Sharma, T.S. 2000. Ancient Indian Literature: An anthology. Sahitya Academy, Delhi. page 278
[xiii] Sasivalli, V.C. 1995. Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais. International Institute of Tamil Studies. P 171..
[xiv] Armstrong, K. 1993. A History of God. Mandarin. p 245.
[xvi] Sasivalli, V.C. 1995. Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais. International Institute of Tamil Studies. p 169.
[xvii] Ganapathy, T.N. 2004. The philosophy of the Tamil Siddhas. Indian Council of Philosophical Research. New Delhi. p 77  
[xviii] McLean, Julienne. At http://cardinalpublishing.com/newks/mclean1.html
[xix] Koovackal, G. 1993. Sufi spirituality. In: Islamic Spirituality. Editor: Augustine Thottakara. Dharmaram Publications, Bangalore. pp 81.
[xx] Underhill, E. 1999. Mysticism. Oneworld. P 131.
[xxi] Armstrong, K. 1993. A History of God. Mandarin. p 248.
[xxii] ‘Aziz Ibn Muhammad Nafasi in al-Maqsadu ‘l-Aqs­ā (Remotest Aim). Translated into English by Parmer in 1867 in his work “Oriental Mysticism”, Cambridge.  Cited by T.P. Hughes, 1885. p 609-610
[xxiii] Shahryar, A. 2004. Understanding Sufism. Islamic Book Service. p 15.
[xxiv] Shahryar, A. 2004. Understanding Sufism. Islamic Book Service. p 15
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[xxvii] Smart, N. 1996. Dimensions of the Sacred. P. xxii
[xxviii] Parrinder, G. 1976. Mysticism in the World’s Religions. Oneworld, Oxford. P 134.
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[xxxi] Massignon, L. 1982. The Passion of al-Hallāj. (Translation). H. Mason, New Jersey. p. 41-42
[xxxii] Toynbee, A. 1992. In: Choose Life: A Dialogue. Authors: Arnold Toynbee and Daisaku Ikeda. Oxford University Press. Pp 374
[xxxiii] Armstrong, K. 1993. In: The God of the Mystics. A History of God. Mandarin. P 242-295
[xxxiv] Fakhry, M. 1997. A short introduction to Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Mysticism. Oneworld Publications. Oxford. p 77.
[xxxv] Hughes, T.P. 1885. Dictionary of Islam. Reprinted in 1998 by Rupa and Co., New Delhi. pages 750
[xxxvi] Shahryar, A. 2004. Understanding Sufism. Islamic Book Service. P. 9.
[xxxvii] Shahryar, A. 2004. Understanding Sufism. Islamic Book Service. P. 10
[xxxviii] Parrinder, G. 1976. Mysticism in the World’s Religions. Oneworld, Oxford. P 14.
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[xl] Shahryar, A. 2004. Understanding Sufism. Islamic Book Service. P. 2.
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[xliv] Ganapathy, T.N. 2004. The philosophy of the Tamil Siddhas. Indian Council of Philosophical Research. New Delhi.
[xlv] Valiuddin, M. 1959. The Qur’anic Sufism. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers. p 59.
[xlvi] Shams, M. 2000. A comparative study of Sufism and Saivism. In: Facets of Saiva Siddhanta. Editor: P. Krishnan. University of Madras. pp 200-208
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[xlviii] Coward, H. 1983. Religious pluralism and Hinduism. In: Religious Pluralism and the World Religions. University of Madras. pp 70-94
[xlix] Koovackal, G. 1993. Sufi spirituality. In: Islamic Spirituality. Editor: Augustine Thottakara. Dharmaram Publications, Bangalore. pp 73-90.
[l] Shahryar, A. 2004. Understanding Sufism. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi.  P. 17
[i] Qual-al-Jamil, 1920. Cairo Edition p. 20. cited by Valiuddin, 1959 (op. cit.) p 103.
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[vi] Sasivalli, V.C. 1995. Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais. International Institute of Tamil Studies. P 3.
[vii] Srinivasachari, P.N. 1951. Mystics and Mysticism. Mylapore Sri Krishna Library. p 228.
[viii] Yousuf Ali, A. 1965. The Holy Qur'an: Text, translation and commentary. Third edition. Khalil Al-Rawaf, Beirut. Two volumes. p 1484 - 1485
[ix] Valiuddin, M. 1959. The Qur’anic Sufism. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers. p. 9.
[x] Sasivalli, V.C. 1995. Mysticism of Love in Saiva Tirumurais. International Institute of Tamil Studies. p ix.
[xi] Fakhry, M. 1997. A short introduction to Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Mysticism. Oneworld Publications. Oxford. p 74
[xii] Charles F. Horne, ed., The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East, (New York: Parke, Austin, & Lipscomb, 1917), Vol. VIII: Medieval Persia, pp. 111-130. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1250rumi-masnavi.html
[xiii] Fakhry, M. 1997. A short introduction to Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Mysticism. Oneworld Publications. Oxford. p 76            
[xiv] Harvey, A. and Hanut, E. 1999. Perfume of the Desert: Inspirations from Sufi Wisdom. Quest Books. p 42
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[1] Thirumurai (திருமுறை), meaning Sacred Path or Sacred Plea is the canon of Saiva Siddhanta consisting 12 books, of more than 18,000 verses. Thirumandiram occupies the tenth place.
[i] Sivananda, Swami. 1997. The Saiva Siddhanta philosophy. In: Sixty Three Nayanmar Saints. The Divine Life Society, Tehri-Garhwal, India. (http://www.dlshq.org/download/nayanar.pdf)
[ii] Fakhry, M. 1997. A short introduction to Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Mysticism. Oneworld Publications. Oxford. pages 151
[iii] Koovackal, G. 1993. Sufi spirituality. In: Islamic Spirituality. Editor: Augustine Thottakara. Dharmaram Publications, Bangalore. pp 73-90
[iv] Underhill, E. 1999. Mysticism. Oneworld. p. 80.
[v] Attar, Tadhikrat al – ‘Awliyal’. Translated by Paul Losensky in Early Islamic Mysticism, p. 163
[vi] Fakhry, M. 1997. A short introduction to Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Mysticism. Oneworld Publications. Oxford. P 73-74
[vii] Little, Layne. 1997. An Introduction to the Tamil Siddhas: Their Tantric Roots, Alchemy, Poetry, and the True Nature of their Heresy
Within the Context of South Indian Shaivite Society. Paper presented at a symposium on world religions at the University of Utah.
[viii] Shahryar, A. 2004. Understanding Sufism. Islamic Book Service. P. 1.
[ix] Abrahams, E.M. 1995. A Comparative Survey of Hindu, Christian and Jewish Mysticism. Sri Sat Guru Publications, Delhi. P 70.
[x] Little, Layne, 1997. (op. cited).
[xi] Zvelebil, Kamil. 1973. The Smile of Muruga – on Tamil Literature of South India. E.J. Brill, Leiden, Holland.
[xii] Shahryar, A. 2004. Understanding Sufism. Islamic Book Service. P. 45.
[xiii] Little, Layne. 1997. An Introduction to the Tamil Siddhas: Their Tantric Roots, Alchemy, Poetry, and the True Nature of their Heresy
Within the Context of South Indian Shaivite Society. Paper presented at a symposium on world religions at the University of Utah. www.levity.com/alchemy
[xiv] Nicholson, 1907. A Literary History of the Arabs. Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi. p 394
[xv] Paramahamsa Yogananda. 1994.  Wine of the Mystic. The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam: A spiritual interpretation. Mac Millan India Limited, New Delhi. P vii.
[xvi] Inayat Khan, Hazrat. 1990. Sufi Teachings. Volume VIII. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers, Delhi. p. 17.
[xvii] Zvelebil, Kamil. 1973. The Smile of Muruga – on Tamil Literature of South India. E.J. Brill, Leiden, Holland.
[xviii] Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyum. Translated by Edward Fitzgerald. 2000. Reprinted by Rupa and Co., New Delhi. P 75.
[xix] Paramahamsa Yogananda. 1994.  Wine of the Mystic. The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam: A spiritual interpretation. Mac Millan India Limited, New Delhi. P viii.
[xx] Paramahamsa Yogananda. 1994.  Wine of the Mystic. The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam: A spiritual interpretation. Mac Millan India Limited, New Delhi. P vii.
[xxi] T.N. Ganapathy, 2006. The twilight language of the Tirumandiram. In: The Yoga of Siddha Tirumular: Essays on the Tirumandiram. Editors: T.N. Ganapathy and K.R. Arumugam. Babaji’s Kriya Yoga and Publications, Inc., Canada. P 299
[xxii] Abrahams, E.M. 1995. A Comparative Survey of Hindu, Christian and Jewish Mysticism. Sri Sat Guru Publications, Delhi. P 128.
[xxiii] Zvelebil, Kamil. 1973. The Smile of Muruga – on Tamil Literature of South India. E.J. Brill, Leiden, Holland.
[xxiv] Ganapathy, T.N. 2004. The philosophy of the Tamil Siddhas. Indian Council of Philosophical Research. New Delhi. p 116
[xxv] Dialogue 616. In Talks with Sri Ramana Maharishi. 4th Ed., 1968, p. 578 (from TN Ganapathy's Book, op.cited. page 65)
[xxvi] Fakhry, M. 1997. A short introduction to Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Mysticism. Oneworld Publications. Oxford. P 81           
[xxvii] The Drop That Became Sea: Lyric Poems of Yunus Emre. Helminski, Kabir. (Translator).  1999. A Shambhala Threshold Book. 96 pages
[xxviii] Armstrong, K. 1993. A History of God. Mandarin. P 276.
[xxix] Koovackal, G. 1993. Sufi spirituality. In: Islamic Spirituality. Editor: Augustine Thottakara. Dharmaram Publications, Bangalore. pp 73-90
[i] Fakhry, M. 1997. A short introduction to Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Mysticism. Oneworld Publications. Oxford. P. 73
[ii] Underhill, E. 1999. Mysticism. Oneworld. p. 72.
[iii] Underhill, E. 1999. Mysticism. Oneworld. p. 81
[iv] Parrinder, G. 1976. Mysticism in the World’s Religions. Oneworld, Oxford. P 15.
[v] Smart, N. 1996. Dimensions of the Sacred. P. xxi
[vi] Zaehner, R.C. 1960. Hindu and Muslim Mysticism. Schocken Books, New York. P. 11
[vii] Underhill, E. 1914. Practical Mysticism. E.P. Dutton & Co. London. p 3.
[viii] Inayat Khan, Hazrat. 2000. Sufi Teachings. Volume VIII. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers, Delhi. p 15.
[ix] Valiuddin, M. 1959. The Qur’anic Sufism. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers. P. 1-2
[x] Shahryar, A.  2004. Understanding Sufism. Islamic Book Service. P. 13
[xi] Ganapathy, T.N.  2004. The philosophy of the Tamil Siddhas. Indian Council of Philosophical Research. New Delhi. p 20
[xii] Walker, B. 1983. The Hindu world: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism London. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi. http://www.geocities.com/athens/5180/tamil4.html
[xiii]  Little, Layne. 1997. An Introduction to the Tamil Siddhas: Their Tantric Roots, Alchemy, Poetry, and the True Nature of their Heresy Within the Context of South Indian Shaivite Society. Paper presented at a symposium on world religions at the University of Utah.


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